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Western Manuscripts of the Bible
From: The British Library
| By:
Scot McKendrick |
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION |
One of the world's greatest collections of manuscripts, or hand-written books, of the Bible is housed at The British Library. Scot McKendrick, curator of classical, Byzantine and biblical manuscripts, introduces a selection of the library's most significant manuscripts and illustrates their extraordinary variety. |
 he manuscripts in the collection of The British Library preserve not only the New Testament in Greek, but also the Bible in the principal languages of Europe and the Middle East.  The selection illustrated here is drawn from manuscripts created over a period of more than 1,200 years, from the time of the Roman, Byzantine and Carolingian empires, from the earliest days of the Christian Church in the eastern Mediterranean, and from the high and later Middle Ages in western and eastern Europe. |
Most of these manuscripts represent the finest specimens from their times of the arts of calligraphy, illumination and book-production; some, more humble in outward appearance, preserve unique or significant readings which shape the modern text of the Bible. Many were written and decorated by monks and other religious men as part of their life of sacrificial praise of God. Some were intended for personal study and meditation, some for reading from and as a physical symbol of the word of God within a Christian community, and others for evangelistic or missionary purposes. |
Treasures of The British Library
 Two of the greatest treasures of Christianity held in The British Library are the fourth-century Codex Sinaiticus (Figure 2) and the fifth-century Codex Alexandrinus (Figure 3). Together with the Codex Vaticanus in Rome these constitute the earliest and most important manuscripts of the Bible in Greek. As two of the earliest large deluxe books written on parchment they stand as landmarks in the history of the book, and reflect the official and high status which the Christian Church achieved from the time of the Emperor Constantine the Great. A similar context lies behind the magnificent Golden Canon Tables, written and decorated at Constantinople, the capital of the eastern Empire, in the sixth or seventh century, and the Cotton Genesis, written and illuminated possibly at Alexandria in the late fifth or sixth century. |
In contrast, two humbler and more personal Christian books from Egypt are preserved in fragments of a papyrus codex and roll dating from the second and third centuries. The fragments of the Unknown Gospel form the earliest surviving manuscript of a Christian text, and those of the Gospel of Thomas preserve an important early collection of the sayings of Jesus. |
Outstanding early survivors of the Latin Bible include the fifth-century Codex Palatinus, one leaf of which is preserved in the British Library, and the early ninth-century St Hubert Bible, written at Orleans in the time of the Emperor Charlemagne. Through its fine decoration the first seeks to enhance the status of the Gospels text and its intended owner; the second seeks to present with clarity a scholarly revision of the Latin translation of the Bible. |
The early eighth-century Greenwell leaf is part of the earliest surviving manuscript of the Old Testament written in England, and illustrates well the achievement and sophistication of the early church in Britain. Representing the eastern Christian Church is the beautiful Theodore Psalter, written and illuminated at Constantinople in 1066 after the resolution of the iconoclastic crisis in favour of those who considered images appropriate to and helpful in Christian devotions. |
Late medieval Christianity is represented by the lavishly illustrated Gospels created in 1355-6 for the last Christian ruler of Bulgaria, Tsar Ivan Alexander, and an unusually fine copy of the Wycliffite English translation of the Bible made towards the end of the fourteenth century for the ill-fated uncle of Richard II, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester. The first illustrates the final phase of eastern Christian book-production before the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The second is a typical product of the scribes and illuminators who continued the tradition of writing and decorating manuscripts of the Bible just over fifty years before Gutenberg printed the Latin text of the Vulgate. |
The Codex Sinaiticus
The Codex Sinaiticus (Figure 2) is a jewel beyond price. Written in Greek around the middle of the fourth century, it is the earliest manuscript of the complete New Testament and the earliest and best witness for some books of the Old Testament. In antiquity and textual importance it is the equal of the Codex Vaticanus in Rome, and generally superior to the Codex Alexandrinus. |
As one of the earliest luxury codices to survive in large part it also forms one of the most important landmarks in the history of the book. The codex is named after the monastery of St Catherine near the foot of Mount Sinai in Egypt. It was discovered there by the German Biblical scholar Constantine Tischendorf in 1859. |
Soon after he made his discovery Tischendorf removed the Codex Sinaiticus to St Petersburg and presented it to Tsar Alexander II of Russia. Forty-three leaves that he found on an earlier visit to St Catherine's in 1844 are now in Leipzig University Library. A further few leaves discovered by the monks at St Catherine's in 1975 remain in the monastery. |
The opening illustrated in Figure 2 shows Psalms 5-6. Whereas in the rest of the Codex the text is arranged in four columns, in the poetical books the text is presented in two. |
The Codex Alexandrinus
 The Codex Alexandrinus (Figure 3) is one of the three earliest and most important manuscripts of the whole Bible in Greek, the others being the Codex Sinaiticus and the Codex Vaticanus in Rome. Written in the first half of the fifth century, it preserves one of the best texts of Deuteronomy and Revelation, and is the oldest manuscript of the second and third books of Maccabees. |
The codex is named after the capital of Greek Egypt, Alexandria, where it formed part of the patriarchal library at the beginning of the fourteenth century. In 1627 Cyril Lucar, Patriarch of Constantinople and a former Patriarch of Alexandria, presented the codex to King Charles I. |
On the illustrated page the end of the Gospel of St Luke is marked by a distinctive tailpiece. These tailpieces accompany the titles of each of the books of the Bible throughout the manuscript. |
The Unknown Gospel
 Illustrated in Figure 4 are three of the earliest manuscripts of a Christian text, fragments of a papyrus codex from Egypt written in Greek, dating from about CE 100-150. Together with a small portion now in Cologne they form all of what is at present known of the unique manuscript of the so-called Unknown Gospel. |
This text appears to be a very early elaboration on the Gospel story. It relates several of the same stories as the four canonical Gospels in a similar historical manner and echoes the words of the Gospel of St John. It is unmarked by the heretical doctrines and sensationalism typical of many non-canonical Christian writings, but includes a mysterious passage that is without parallel in the canonical Gospels. |
The two large fragments recount Christ's healing of a leper and response to hostile questioning. Both incidents may be identified with events recorded in the synoptic Gospels. |
The Gospel of Thomas
 The short sequence of sayings of Jesus illustrated in Figure 5 is one of three fragments of a papyrus roll from Egypt written in Greek, third century. They were discovered at the site of the ancient city of Oxyrhynchus in 1897 and 1903. All are now recognised as preserving parts of the original Greek text of the Gospel of Thomas, of which a full Coptic version was discovered at Nag Hammadi in 1945-6. |
Unlike the canonical Gospels, the Gospel of Thomas does not narrate the life of Christ but is a collection of his sayings, some of which are close to those found in the canonical Gospels, others whereas are new and obscure. They are associated with the Gnostics sects who believed that salvation could be attained by gnosis or knowledge. |
The opening words of the Gospel of Thomas, as reconstructed from the present fragment, are "These are the secret sayings which Jesus the Living spoke and Didymus Judas Thomas wrote". |
The Golden Canon Tables
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The two leaves in Figure 6 are from a set of canon tables, created in the eastern Mediterranean in the sixth or seventh century. They form the only surviving remains of an extraordinary deluxe manuscript of the Four Gospels and are arguably the most splendid fragments to survive from the early Christian period. |
Compiled by Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea, in the first half of the fourth century to aid readers of the Gospels, the tables are written over gold leaf and set within a sumptuous architectural frame. This frame is filled with stylised and naturalistic decoration and includes medallion busts of the apostles. The tables were preserved in a late twelth-century manuscript of the Gospels, but only after having been trimmed to fit the smaller volume. |
On the left-hand page is part of the first canon table which enables a reader to trace passages that occur in all four Gospels. On the right are the eighth, ninth and tenth canon tables. The Greek letters in the columns denote a section of one of the Gospels. |
The Cotton Genesis
 Despite its poor state of preservation the Cotton Genesis (Figure 7) remains one of the most important early manuscripts of the Bible. It was written and illuminated in the late fifth or sixth century, possibly at Alexandria. When first produced, this manuscript contained a uniquely full sequence of around 339 illustrations of the Book of Genesis. Its survival has raised the question of whether other books of the Bible were illustrated with similar profuseness in the early Christian period. |
Unfortunately the Cotton Genesis was seriously damaged in 1731 at Ashburnham House, where it was stored together with the rest of the Cotton Library. In the fierce heat of a disastrous fire the parchment leaves shrank to about half their original size and were partly melted or charred. |
The illustrated page preserves an illustration of the story of Lot. Lot meets two angels by the gate of Sodom and offers them hospitality for the night. |
The Codex Palatinus
 Illustrated in Figure 8 is a luxurious leaf of translucently thin purple parchment with uncial letters penned entirely in silver which once formed part of an important early manuscript of the Old Latin version of the Gospels. Written in North Italy in the fifth century, this manuscript is known as the Codex Palatinus after the largest surviving portion (228 leaves) which was discovered at the Castello del Buon Consiglio, Trent, around 1730, and temporarily removed to the Palatine Library in Vienna. |
It is a relatively rare manuscript of one of the Latin versions of the Gospels which preceded the Vulgate translation completed by St Jerome for Pope Damasus in 384. Another separated leaf of the Codex is preserved in Trinity College, Dublin. The text illustrated is part of the Gospel of St Matthew (14:11-15). |
The St Hubert Bible
 The Bible in Latin in Figure 9, written at Orleans in the early ninth century, is one of the earliest of only six manuscripts that preserve the revision of the Vulgate by Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans (d. 821). Produced under his close supervision it presents its text with distinctive clarity, concision and restrained elegance, written in tiny Caroline script. It is named after the Benedictine Abbey of St Hubert in the Ardennes where it was recorded in the seventeenth century. Theodulf, one of the foremost scholars of the Frankish Empire, undertook his revision of the Vulgate at roughly the same time as Alcuin, Abbot of Tours, was completing his revision for Charlemagne. These revisions had similar theological, scholarly and political aims. |
The illustrated opening shows part of Theodulf's version of the Psalms. In the first column on the left-hand page is Psalm 23 "The Lord is my Shepherd". |
A de-luxe cover for the Gospels
 The manuscript of the Gospels of St Luke and St John in Latin (Figure 10) retains one of the finest early bindings preserved in the collections of The British Library. Sunk into an upper cover of thick wood, a central panel of Limoges enamel on copper gilt shows Christ in majesty with, at the corners, the symbols of the four evangelists. This panel from the early thirteenth century and its elaborate enamel frame suggest that the manuscript served in the liturgy as a physical symbol of the word of God. Written and illuminated in Germany in the late twelfth century, the volume is said to have belonged to the nunnery of Heiningen, in the diocese of Hildesheim in Germany. |
The Theodore Psalter
One of the most profusely illustrated manuscripts of the Psalms, and possibly the most significant manuscript illuminated in the capital of eastern Christendom, was made for Michael, Abbot of the Studios Monastery in Constantinople. Written and illuminated at Constantinople in 1066, it is named after its scribe and illuminator Theodore, a monk who came to Studios from Caesarea. |
 Working closely with his abbot, Theodore produced 435 marginal illustrations which act as a contemporary commentary on the text of the Psalms. Of particular concern is the exemplification of the virtues to which abbot and monks should aspire, and the spiritual dangers of which they should beware. |
At the midpoint of the Psalter (Figure 11) we are presented with a model of leadership and obedience. On the page, which includes the final verses of Psalm 77, Christ in majesty oversees the exemplary leadership of Moses and Aaron of their human and animal flocks. |
The Gospels of Tsar Ivan Alexander
The manuscript of the Four Gospels in Figure 12, in Slavonic of Bulgarian character, was written and illuminated in 1355-6 for Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria. The most celebrated surviving example of Bulgarian medieval art, it contains a remarkable sequence of 366 illuminated miniatures illustrating the life and teachings of Christ. According to a long inscription at its end, the volume was copied in 1355-6 by a monk named Simeon and was encased in a binding encrusted with precious stones. |
 The reign of Ivan Alexander (1331-71) was very important in the cultural history of Bulgaria, but also represented a period of political decline. After the Tsar's death, the Bulgarian Empire disintegrated. The Gospels were taken into Romania and subsequently discovered at Mount Athos in 1837 by an English traveller. |
The illustrated miniatures of scourging and a siege are prompted by the prophecy of Christ of the end of time in the Gospel of St Mark (13:3-37). |
The Greenwell Leaf
The leaf from a Bible in Latin illustrated in Figure 13 is a fragment of the earliest surviving manuscript of the Old Testament written in England. It originally belonged to one of three giant Bibles produced at Wearmouth-Jarrow in Northumbria under the direction of Abbot Ceolfrid (689-716). One of these manuscripts, the Codex Amiatinus (now in Florence), is the oldest surviving complete Vulgate Bible. |
 Of the other two manuscripts, one is lost altogether, whilst the second was preserved at Worcester from the late eighth century until the Reformation when it was broken up. Some of its leaves were reused as book-coverings and a few have subsequently come to light, including this one which was discovered at Newcastle in 1889 by Canon William Greenwell of Durham. |
The text--part of the Third Book of Kings--is written in a fine uncial script similar to the Codex Amiatinus. The script is also similar to the Middleton leaves and the Bankes leaf which are held in The British Library and came from the same Bible as the Greenwell leaf. |
The Bible of Thomas of Woodstock
 The elaborately decorated Bible in Middle English in Figure 14 was written probably in London before 1397. It is the earliest datable manuscript of the first complete translation of the Bible into English. This translation, known as the Early Version of the Wycliffite Bible, was produced by the followers of John Wycliffe (d. 1384), founder of the reforming group known as the Lollards. |
The Early Version, a stilted, word-for-word rendering of the Latin of the Vulgate Bible, predated the more scholarly and readable Later Version, completed about 1395, which was also derived from the Vulgate. This fine copy belonged to Thomas of Woodstock (d. 1397), the youngest son of Edward III. |
The illustrated page shows the beginning of the Acts of the Apostles. |
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