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The Diamond sutra
Translation of the Vajracchedikaprajaaparamitasutra into Chinese. Woodblock print in roll form with frontispiece found at Dunhuang. Colophon dated 868 CE.
The world's earliest printed "book," the Diamond sutra consists of sheets of printed text stuck onto a backing and rolled into a scroll. This rolled format was a development from an earlier form of "book" in which inscriptions, texts or records were written on long narrow strips of bamboo which were bound together by two strings so that they could be kept in order and rolled up for convenient storage. The format was retained for some time after the advent of paper, but was eventually replaced by the method by which pages are sewn in at the spine.
The Diamond sutra must represent a late stage in the development of printing, for it is a considerable work, over 16 feet long. It has a wonderfully carved frontispiece of the Buddha sitting cross-legged on a lotus throne behind a small table, preaching to his aged disciple who sits on a mat, his shoes neatly placed beside him. At the time, the Chinese still sat on mats (a custom that was exported to Japan, where it persists), for chairs were not used in China until the late ninth century. A crowd of monks surround the Buddha who, like his disciple, wears monks' robes (made of squares of cloth, the squares outlined in black in this illustration). Above the head of the Buddha are a pair of apsareses (Buddhist "angels") amongst clouds, on either side of a canopy hung with ropes of precious stones. On either side is a fierce guardian of the faith and a pair of a small lions, another protective symbol (although here looking more like cats in front of a fireplace). On the table are chased-silver vessels and an embroidered cloth, and the whole floor seems to be covered in marvellously carved tiles (which were used in some early temples.)
The colophon, which dates this printing so accurately, reads: "Reverently [caused to be] made for universal free distribution by Wang Jie on behalf of his parents on the 15th of the fourth moon of the ninth year of Xian tong [11th May, 868]." The fact that he had it printed for free, and presumably wide, distribution as an act of merit on behalf of his parents strengthens the theory of the link between Buddhism and printing, because it was of course possible to distribute so many more texts if they were printed.
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Woodblock. Carved with pages of the "Impartial power" section of the Yin zhi jin jian (A mirror of hidden good).
Woodblocks such as this were used to print Chinese texts from at least the ninth century and probably much earlier. They were carved from pearwood, jujube and catalpa, all of which are smooth and evenly textured. Pear and jujube were most commonly used for texts, while catalpa, which is harder, was more suitable for the fine line of illustration.
This block is carved on both sides, which was common practise, and the page format is clear. Two pages of text are carved with the margin in the middle. When printed, the thin sheet of paper was folded along the central margin and the two outer sides stitched into the spine. The carving was done from a thin sheet of manuscript (or, in the case of a reprint, a printed sheet unstitched from the earlier edition), which would have been pasted face down on the block. Where mistakes were made in the cutting, the characters would be cut out and small replacements inserted (see the space at the top right of this block).
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Stamped images of a seated Buddha. Found at Dunhuang. Eighth (?) century CE.
Small stamped images such as these may have produced some of the impetus for the development of printing in China. Though the Chinese had long been using seals, or "chops," it was not until after the invention of paper, during the Han period, that printing became a real possibility, so personal seals as such may not have had much influence on the invention of printing. Monks at Dunhuang used to paint hundreds of tiny Buddha figures as an act of devotion; with the use of a small stamp, they could reproduce thousands, rather than hundreds, in a day.
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Printed prayer-sheet. From Dunhuang. Prayer-sheet with illustration of Amitabha Buddha. Woodblock, tenth century.
A large number of such printed prayer-sheets were found in the walled-up library at Dunhuang, and, though most are undated, they are amongst the earliest examples of printing found in China. Like the Diamond sutra, they were probably financed and printed by believers as an act of faith.
Amitabha, a very popular Buddha in China and, later, Japan, is depicted meditating on a lotus throne. Beneath him are prayers; the characters to his left read "Universal exhortation to worship and maintenance of the faith," and those on the right, "Amitabha Buddha of the 48 vows." The most important of these vows is the 18th, in which Amitabha promises to refuse Buddha-hood until he has saved all living beings, except those who have committed the five unpardonable sins or are guilty of blasphemy. Amitabha presided over the Western Paradise, which is, theoretically, only a stage on the journey to nirvana but is traditionally assumed to be the final resting place of those who have called his name. Memorial services in Buddhist temples today are followed by a shorter service in which all present call on Amitabha to take the deceased into his heaven.
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Printed prayer-sheet. From Dunhuang. Prayer-sheet with illustration of Majusri riding a lion. Woodblock, ninth or tenth century.
Majusri was the Buddhists' guardian of wisdom and is also described in the Lotus sutra as the ninth Buddha-ancestor of Sakyamuni. He is usually depicted, as here, riding on a lion, the symbol of his stern majesty. Beneath Majusri and attendants are a short prayer and a dharani (incantation). On the left, the characters are identical with those on the prayer-sheet of Amitabha (4) and on the right they read, "The very holy Bodhisattva Majusri."
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The Qi sha tripitaka. Woodblock edition with frontispiece; one juan of 6,362. Jiangsu province, 1301.
One of the greatest printing enterprises in China was the first printing of the Buddhist canon (or tripitaka), carried out between 972 and 983 CE in Sichuan province. This comprised 1,076 titles translated from Sanskrit into Chinese and printed in 5,048 juan (sections, sometimes volumes). Four further editions were printed during the Song dynasty (960-1279).
In the mid-twelfth century, the north of China was invaded by a succession of different rulers, mostly of non-Chinese origin, culminating in the Mongol invasion, which established the Yuan dynasty in 1279. This edition of the tripitaka was begun in the southern province of Jiangsu in 1231 but was not completed until about 1322. The illustration shows strong Tibetan influence, for the Lamaist Mongols were closely linked to Lamaist Tibet.
The illustration is typical of Buddhist printing. The book itself is bound in the concertina format, frequently used for Chinese Buddhist works, which, from the time of the Diamond sutra onwards, often had lavish frontispieces before the printed text.
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Twenty-four examples of filial piety. Woodblock edition of the Er shi si xiao with illustrations in decorative cartouches. 1688.
The virtue of filial piety was upheld by Confucius and became an essential part of the ethos of family in traditional China. It was considered almost impossible for children to repay the bounty of their parents who had brought them into the world and cared for them.
On the right, a filial son removes most of his clothes to melt the ice on a frozen river so that his parents will have fresh fish to eat in winter. The text beneath records the "historical" details of the exemplar, in this case a man called Wang Xiang. There follows a poem repeating the heroic deed.
On the left is a lady of the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) suckling her elderly and toothless mother-in-law, who could not take any other nourishment.
Even today, filial duties are taken seriously in China. Failing to care for elderly parents (without having to go to such lengths as here illustrated) is punishable by law, and old people's homes exist only for those with no family at all.
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Biographies of exemplary women. Woodblock illustrated edition of the Lie n zhuan, illustrations by Qiu Ying. Preface dated 1779.
In traditional China, women were expected to have no independent life outside the family, to obey first their parents, then their parents-in-law and husband and, finally, their sons. It was considered a disgrace for a woman to remarry if she was widowed; the most "virtuous" thing she could do was to commit suicide. Memorial arches commemorating virtuous widows who had killed themselves were erected in almost every Chinese town.
It became the custom to append biographies of "virtuous" women to the dynastic histories where almost all the exemplars had sacrificed themselves in one way or another to their husbands or husbands' families.
In this large collection devoted entirely to Confucian female virtue, the women in the 24 examples of filial piety are included (one thoughtfully cutting off a finger to feed an aged relative). Practically the only exception to these self-destructive ladies is Mu Lan (5th century CE). Mu Lan was her parents' only child. When her father was called up for military service, she disguised herself and went in his place to avoid the disgrace that would fall on the family if nobody participated in the war. She served for 12 years successfully concealing her sex and became a folk heroine. She is depicted here in armour.
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The Romance of the Lute. Pi pa ji attributed to Cao Ming (born c. 1305). Woodblock edition with 41 illustrations by Huang Yibin and other members of the Huang clan. 1610.
The type of drama called Pi pa ji is thought to be one of the earliest examples of the southern Chinese drama, a combination of songs, dialogue and action, usually with a romantic and uplifting plot. The plays were immensely long but were relieved by songs, performed to a languorous accompaniment.
The story is a typical one. A young man worries about leaving his elderly parents when he goes off to take the exams for the imperial bureaucracy. His father insists that he go, and he scores highest in the exam. An overnight celebrity, he is forced to marry the prime minister's daughter. Meanwhile, his parents starve to death in a famine and his first wife sets off to tell him the news, supporting herself on her journey by playing the lute. The hero returns to mourn his parents for the traditional three years (together with both wives) and eventually, after the mourning is over, returns to the capital to take up office. As both wives have been models of filial virtue, this is considered to be a happy and satisfactory ending.
The illustrations to this early edition are by famous block-cutters, and the work is remarkably detailed, particularly in the fine line of the fabric and tile patterns. Here, the hero is being congratulated by the prime minister on his exam success and is about to receive his official hat.
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The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. San guo zhi zhuan, Yu Xiangwu's woodblock illustrated edition, Shuang feng tang, 1592.
One of the most popular fictional genres in China was and still is the historical epic, a romanticised tale based on real events and characters. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, first published in novel form by Luo Guanzhong (c. 1330-1400), based on oral storytellers' versions, is perhaps the earliest and best-known example. It describes the period from 168 to 265 CE, when the rulers of three kingdoms contested for absolute power. The main characters are Liu Bei, the legitimate Han heir, the wily Cao Cao of Wei and the vacillating Sun Quan of Wu. The most developed characters are their generals; Liu Bei's commander Zhuge Liang has passed into Chinese folklore as a supernatural military and technical genius.
Here Jiang Wei, an ambitious man of humble background who had attached himself to Zhuge Liang, is shown being shot in the eye in battle (right). Though a distinguished soldier, he was eventually defeated by the Wei army.
The format is typical of late Ming popular editions, with an illustration heading each page; in this edition, the illustration and the text are clear and well cut--which was not always the case in popular editions.
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